Epidural Catheter Placement Techniques by Anesthesia Residents: Success and Complications

Inclusion Criteria: * Age 18-80 years * ASA physical status I, II, or III * Scheduled for elective surgery requiring perioperative epidural analgesia or anesthesia (lumbar or thoracic approach) * Epidural catheter to be placed by a resident with ≥ 2 years of anesthesia training Exclusion Criteria: * Spinal deformity (scoliosis, kyphosis, or prior spinal surgery at the target level) * Coagulopathy or anticoagulant therapy precluding neuraxial blockade * Active infection at the insertion site or systemic infection * Pre-existing neurological disease affecting the spinal cord or nerve roots * Emergency surgery * History of prior failed epidural catheterization * Patient refusal or inability to provide written informed consent * Local anatomical pathology precluding safe epidural access