Type 1 Diabetes and Depression: Role of Brain Glutamate

T1DM Subjects: Inclusion Criteria: * 10-25 years duration of T1DM. * Relatively low levels of complications from diabetes. Exclusion Criteria: * Type 2 diabetes and/or gestational diabetes. * Other major clinical conditions such as cancer, symptomatic coronary artery disease, (e.g., prior myocardial infarction), stroke, proliferative diabetic retinopathy requiring a laser treatment, clinically significant diabetic nephropathy as evidenced by urinary albumin levels \> 300 mg/day and/or serum creatinine \> 1.5 mg/dl for men and \> 1.4 mg/dl for women, painful or symptomatic neuropathy, and/or diagnosed gastroparesis. * Current or past history of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, bipolar disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder, panic disorder, substance dependence or schizophrenia. * Ethanol dependence and/or nicotine dependence according to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-IV criteria and heavy smokers according to the Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications scale 57. Control Subjects: Inclusion Criteria: * No history of T1DM or Major Depressive Disorder. * Normal fasting blood glucose, HbA1c and hematocrit levels. Exclusion Criteria: * Known chronic medical illness such as rheumatoid arthritis or major cardiac, kidney or liver disease or anemia. * Current or past history of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, bipolar disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder, panic disorder, substance dependence or schizophrenia. * Past history of a major…