Stopped: After delay due to pandemic, sponsor declined to continue funding.
This study is designed to compare two types of snacks (almonds or a cereal-based snack), eaten between meals, on measures of appetite, including appetitive hormones, self-reported feelings of hunger and fullness, and food intake at a buffet meal or in the home environment. The investigators hypothesize that the acute responses of appetitive hormones to a meal challenge protocol will differ between almond and cereal-based snacks based on multivariate models of satiety that will be predictive of ad libitum food intake at a dinner meal as part of the meal challenge protocol. Further, the investigators will estimate if, under free-living conditions, self-selected and self-reported food intake will show appropriate energy compensation for the added calories of the snacks, and determine if one type of snack is superior to the other in this regard.
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Baseline level and change in cholecystokinin
Timeframe: Baseline, 60 minutes before lunch meal, and 10, 30, 90, 150, 180, 210, 240, and 270 minutes after a lunch meal
Baseline level and change in peptide-YY
Timeframe: Baseline, 60 minutes before lunch meal, and 10, 30, 90, 150, 180, 210, 240, and 270 minutes after a lunch meal
Baseline level and change in glucose-like peptide 1
Timeframe: Baseline, 60 minutes before lunch meal, and 10, 30, 90, 150, 180, 210, 240, and 270 minutes after a lunch meal
Baseline level and change in gastric inhibitory peptide
Timeframe: Baseline, 60 minutes before lunch meal, and 10, 30, 90, 150, 180, 210, 240, and 270 minutes after a lunch meal
Baseline level and change in insulin
Timeframe: Baseline, 60 minutes before lunch meal, and 10, 30, 90, 150, 180, 210, 240, and 270 minutes after a lunch meal
Baseline level and change in glucose
Timeframe: Baseline, 60 minutes before lunch meal, and 10, 30, 90, 150, 180, 210, 240, and 270 minutes after a lunch meal
Baseline level and change in oleoylethanolamide
Timeframe: Baseline, 60 minutes before lunch meal, and 10, 30, 90, 150, 180, 210, 240, and 270 minutes after a lunch meal
Baseline level and change in ghrelin
Timeframe: Baseline, 60 minutes before lunch meal, and 10, 30, 90, 150, 180, 210, 240, and 270 minutes after a lunch meal
Baseline level and change in leptin
Timeframe: Baseline, 60 minutes before lunch meal, and 10, 30, 90, 150, 180, 210, 240, and 270 minutes after a lunch meal
Baseline level and change in orexin
Timeframe: Baseline, 60 minutes before lunch meal, and 10, 30, 90, 150, 180, 210, 240, and 270 minutes after a lunch meal
Baseline level and change in endocannabinoid profiles
Timeframe: Baseline, 60 minutes before lunch meal, and 10, 30, and 150 minutes after a lunch meal
Baseline level and change in hunger
Timeframe: Baseline, every 30 minutes up to 480 minutes, and immediately before and after three meals
Baseline level and change in satiety
Timeframe: Baseline, every 30 minutes up to 480 minutes, and immediately before and after three meals
Change in food intake at a dinner meal
Timeframe: Week 1 and 4