Diabetes Mellitus Type II and Tissue Oxygenation

Inclusion criteria: We will include 30 patients who have more than a five-year history of insulin-dependent type-2 diabetes mellitus and 30 non-diabetic patients meeting the following criteria: * 35 - 65 yrs old * BMI \< 30 * ASA class I - III * Abdominal surgery scheduled to last between 2- 4 hours For Non-diabetic group: previous BMP within the last year demonstrating glucose \< 126mg/dL For Diabetic group: * DMII defined as fasting plasma glucose of \> 126 mg/dL at time of diagnosis, now requiring insulin * At least one diabetes associated vasculopathy: coronary artery disease, diabetic nephropathy, hypertension, diabetic retinopathy, diffuse neuropathy, peripheral vascular disease, or a history of stroke Exclusion Criteria: * Pregnant * Immunocompromised: HIV/AIDS, on immunosuppressant therapy for any reason, or post-organ transplantation. * Infection or fever, or on glucocorticoids * Malignancy currently requiring radiation or chemotherapy * Liver or renal failure * Pancreatic insufficiency, dysautonomia, thyroid disease, Raynaud's syndrome, pathologic Allen-test, or any coagulopathies * Respiratory disease affecting ability to reach PaO2 of 300mmHg: COPD, emphysema, cystic fibrosis, asthma, pneumonia, PE * Smoker within the past 6 months or current alcohol abuse * Allergy to local anesthetic * For diabetics: DMI, other specific subtype, and gestational diabetics * We will also exclude patients with epidural catheter, to avoid the influence of regional anesthesia…